Processors CPU. Cache Memory. Processor Core and Intel Architecture. Class 4 Hardware Course by JMJG
They are everywhere, in every computerized machine (smartphones, televisions, cars, video games, electronics in general, home appliances, etc.). Processors are fundamental items for these machines, as they are the "brain of the machine", the most intelligent chip capable of "making decisions" and executing tasks according to a pre-established schedule.
Without processors, there would be no modern electronic machines, computers, robots, or all the wonders that gadgets provide us. These electronic chips are true marvels of engineering, a true state of the art!
Here we will talk a little more about Intel and its first processors. In the next class, we will follow the same path taken by AMD. Here I will only cover Desktop processors and the most famous ones in Brazil, the others were omitted.
History of Processors in the World
However, the processors in those machines had thousands of wires, cables, valves and could literally take up an entire room! All of this was just the central processing unit (CPU), lacking the rest of the machine to function!
For this very reason, those computers were huge buildings, and could not be called personal computers (PC).
Later, this discovery could replace valves completely, producing smaller, more reliable electronic circuits, with a longer lifespan and lower energy consumption.
We are now in the era of solid state electronics, where all valves were being replaced by transistorized circuits.
The industry continued its research in the solid state field, and we were yet to see another revolution in the electronic world! Integrated circuits!
Known as IC - Integrated Circuit or CI in Portuguese, this component was discovered in 1949 and would achieve the impossible. Bring together in a single component more than 1 transistor and a series of others, in a very small space!
It would be a big step towards manufacturing future processors!
Even the first processors already had hundreds of transistors integrated into a single chip. The most modern ones would have a city, or even an entire country, integrated into them. The miracle of nanotechnology.
Watch a quick video of how a Chip is made. Believe it or not, it's made with sand......
Watch a quick video of how a Chip is made. Believe it or not, it's made with sand......
Processor Core (CORE)
The concept of core applies exactly to the internal chip, which actually houses the technology and all the structure necessary for a CPU. Measuring centimeters or millimeters, this chip is the result of nanotechnology (Lithography).
The core contains the ALU, Registers, and other integrated circuits for the perfect functioning of the CPU chip. The CPU itself is covered with a rigid protective encapsulation, to prevent the internal chip (fragile) from breaking; generally on the outside there is a metal contact reserved to be connected to the heat sink+cooler for cooling purposes.
The first CPU models did not need a cooler, until the 486. From the Pentium onwards, all of them need to be cooled, or the CPU will burn/damage. Processors need to work cold, the colder, the better!
When there was a technological impediment to continue increasing the clock (Ghz) of processors, the concept of Core's emerged.
The famous Multi-Cores use internal chips that have more than one integrated CPU, running at lower speeds, but in parallel. As if they were two heads!
From then on, it would no longer be interesting to increase the Ghz of the processors, but rather to integrate more Cores.
Getting Started with a CPU Chip
 |
| World's First Intel C4004 Processor 4 bits! |
In 1971, Intel Corporation (founded in 1968) would manufacture the 4004, the world's first processor integrated into a chip! It was 4-bit and could run at 740Khz (0.7 Mhz)!
However, this integrated circuit was originally manufactured for calculators, and not for use in computers.
- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):performs logic operations and mathematical calculations.
- Control Unit: responsible for decoding the program (interpreting the data bits), and all other functions related to control and execution
- Registers: Store data to perform subsequent processing (latch)
When the company CTC ordered a special processor for its Datapoint 2200 terminal from Intel, the project for the brand new and modern 8008 would emerge.
Don't get confused, Datapoint was NOT a computer! It was just a terminal (a kind of video card and keyboard) to program the computers of the time.
The 8008 was the processor that would equip this product, however, Intel took a while to deliver it to CTC, and the 8008 ended up being used under license for other products.
Later, computer manufacturers would discover the power of the 8008 as a processor. It could run at up to 800Khz (0.8 Mhz) and address up to 16Kb of memory. The advantage was that it was 8 bits!
But, few computers used it, due to its architecture being special for terminals.
Then in 1974, Intel, realizing the future of this chip, developed the 8080, an improvement of the 8008.
First Computers with 8-Bit CPU
 |
| First 8-bit processor. Used in computers |
The 8080, in turn, has an architecture prepared for computerized machines in general. It was effectively the first processor to be used in computers!
The 8080 was so successful that many other manufacturers began to "copy" the idea. At that time, we had AMD, Motorola, Zilog also producing processor chips.
The 8080 chip had 8 bits of processing, and could run at an incredible 2 MHZ clock! This processor chip would be a true milestone in the history of world computing, to this day the 8086 architectures (x86) are based on it. Despite being 8 bits, it could address 16 bits, directly accessing a memory of up to 64kb!
Computers based on the 8080 were built, the most famous are:
- IMSAI8080
- Altair8800
Another very famous manufacturer would also manufacture its own replica of the 8080, named Z80 (Zilog)! This processor would perhaps be the most famous and used than Intel's 8080! This was because Zilog authorized other manufacturers to make Z80 (free architecture)
With that, dozens of other very popular computers invaded people's homes during the 80s!
Until here in Brazil, many computers used the Z80 (Zilog) processor such as:
- Gradiente MSX Expert / Shart HotBit
- CP500
- Amstrad CPC
I myself (JMJG) had a Gradiente Expert with Z80! (the computer that has our website written in the picture)
There was also an improved version known as 8085.
Moving Towards 16-Bit Processors!
The next generations would be the Intel 8086, 8088 processors. They would be used much more for computers, as they would be the first with 16-bit processing!
The curious thing is that the 8086 was manufactured by many companies such as: Intel, AMD, Panasonic, Mitsubishi and NEC. Its base clock was 5Mhz or 10Mhz (turbo mode).
The 80286 also from 1982, began marking another expression, the ending (286) was used como popular term in Brazil for computers competing with the IBM-PC! It was common to say. "My 286... a 286...etc"
The 80286 could operate with clocks from 6Mhz to 25 Mhz (turbo mode) but was far superior to the 80186, due to its internal architecture and improvements (memory management, protection, etc)
This 80286 was used for IBM AT/PC computers, so it became very famous in Brazil. Everyone referred to the 286 in general as being a computer!
The most popular term was still used in the AT that became AT-286!
Intel, IBM and AMD manufactured 286 processors!
These processors were the first to use the "protected mode" which would be the famous "multitasking" to perform accesses of several operations at the same time.
Entering the 32-bit world!
The 80386 (known simply as 386) was the first processor in the 32-bit family!
Launched in 1985 as the successor to the old 286, it could operate with a clock speed of 12Mhz up to 40Mhz (turbo mode).
Manufactured by Intel, AMD and IBM. This processor could already be used to run a more current operating system (LINUX or even Windows 95) although the performance would be very slow or even not run properly.
80486- Launched in 1989 (known as 486) it was the evolution of the 386, this time with a clock in the range of 16 Mhz up to a wonderful 150 Mhz. Produced by Intel, IBM, AMD, etc.
Here we have much more modern computers, but unfortunately we still don't have enough speed to run large systems. Here old Distros Linux (DSL) or Windows 3.1/3.11 would probably run well.
To stand out from the competition, Intel would end up with the expression "86" since it would not be possible to register numbers. It would have to invent a name or brand.It would be the last time that Intel would treat its processors with numbers!
Also with the launch of the "486" the famous ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) sockets would be launched
 |
| Easy-Install Lever Sockets (ZIF) |
With ZIF sockets, it would be easier to install or change, upgrade the processor for another one, without using force. A simple side lever could unlock/lock the processor chip on the board. Before that, the chips were fitted into sockets that required force, which could cause breakage or physical damage to the Mobo or CPU.
It would also be the landmark for the different pinouts used in processors, marking different Mobo versions, sockets and a series of incompatibilities, defining Intel as the leader in the processor market.
The Last improvement in 486 was the version SX,DX-2, DX-4.
The whole world was waiting for the launch of the famous 586, but Intel, tired of the competition (AMD, IMB, etc.) decided to innovate in everything. Since it is not possible to register a brand of numbers (586), it decided to name its new processors with a commercial name (which could be registered).
👉Then the new generation of PENTIUM processors appears.
There are several sockets for Pentium versions, ranging from Socket 4, 5, 7. Here we were running Windows 95 or Linux with a graphical platform.So far Intel and AMD were manufacturing compatible processors in sockets. In Socket 7, for example, a Pentium or an AMD K6 could be connected, as long as the Mobo supported it. From this point on, Intel would distance itself from the compatibility market, producing its own sockets. AMD would continue for a while following the market's compatibility, until it also produced its own sockets.
In these processors, the famous Cache memories were evident, embedded within the processor Core (16Kb, or 32Kb) known as L1.
A new generation of 32-bit processors
The whole world was waiting for the launch of the famous 586, but Intel, tired of the competition (AMD, IMB, etc.) decided to innovate in everything. Since it is not possible to register a brand of numbers (586), it decided to name its new processors with a commercial name (which could be registered).
👉Then the new generation of PENTIUM processors appears.
Launched in 1993, this processor marks an era of success and leadership for Intel in the processor market. The Pentium was more than an improved processor; it had a clock speed of up to 300 MHZ in its latest versions.
There were many versions, and also a special MMX, which brought a set of special instructions for multimedia (improved video and audio handling for the famous Creative kits, etc.)
There are several sockets for Pentium versions, ranging from Socket 4, 5, 7. Here we were running Windows 95 or Linux with a graphical platform.So far Intel and AMD were manufacturing compatible processors in sockets. In Socket 7, for example, a Pentium or an AMD K6 could be connected, as long as the Mobo supported it. From this point on, Intel would distance itself from the compatibility market, producing its own sockets. AMD would continue for a while following the market's compatibility, until it also produced its own sockets.
Cache Memory
The cache is an ultra-fast memory that operates at the same clock speed as theprocessor. This ensures extreme speed. Its function is to store the latest instructions or results, generating faster access to a lot of information that has already been processed. In the past, the processor had to search for this information in RAM, but it operates at a much lower frequency than the cache. The processor becomes slower until it searches for this information, because without cache it remains idle for nanoseconds, a time that in the modern world can be an eternity!
Producing cache memory in the processor core is very expensive, for this very reason, the cache memories are very small (the first 16KB) but sufficient for their function and incredible improvement in performance.
Some Intel processors (Celeron) were produced without this very limited memory, to be more economical and competitive to the popular market.
Later there would be the concept of L2, L3 cache but these memories, although also embedded in the CPU Core, operate with a very reduced clock, and do not offer the same performance as the L1 cache.
Some versions of this processor were available in the SLOT model, where they were fitted like memory sticks, instead of ZIF sockets. Each version of the processor was known by a name (nickname) as it was in the Pentium. The standard socket was Slot1, MMC1/2, PPGA.
Here we had SDRAM memories with FSB of 100Mhz being accessed by the Pentium 2.
The MMX technology was also present, and because multimedia resources were highly valued, this technology would be perpetuated by Intel in its next generations of processors.
👉Pentium III - Launched in 1999, this processor was the most used and well-known in Brazil, and it is still possible to find Mobos and chips for this processor today.
These processors were also manufactured in several versions ranging from 450Mhz to 1.4Ghz!
They could transfer data in RAM memories with FSB up to 133Mhz (in the latest versions).
The standard socket is the ZIF-style Socket 370, but versions of the Pentium3 were available in other designs, including the SLOT-style memory stick. In addition to MMX, these processors were equipped with SSE, an instruction set to improve floating-point math and multitasking.
👍This would be the first time in the history of computers that processing speed would surpass the much-desired 1 Gigahertz barrier.
👉Pentium IV - Launched in mid-2000, this processor would mark a new technological revolution.
Operating in versions ranging from 1.3Ghz to 3.8Ghz, this processor already works with memories from 400Mhz to 1066 Mhz FSB.
The standard sockets were 423, 478 and LGA 775. Here, in addition to MMX, SSE, there were improvements in the instruction set for SSE2, SSE3
Due to the extremely high clocks in the 4Ghz range, Pentium 4 processors faced a dilemma that would determine a radical change in technology.
When you increase the clock too much, you consume more electrical energy and generate much more heat (requiring huge coolers). Many electrical and performance problems also compromised the 4Ghz barrier from being broken.
Moore's law (founder of Intel) would become meaningless.
Some special versions of the Pentium 4 already had HTT (Hyper Threading technology), which created another virtual core, being a 2x1 Dual Core.
Other versions of the Pentium 4 also supported the wonderful 64-bit system!
Processors of the 64-Bit Generation (X86-64)
Modified Pentium D /P4 - Released in 2005, this processor would be the first truly "Dual Core". Operating at clock speeds of 2.66Ghz up to 3.73Ghz, the industry now has theimprovements, would reduce speeds, but double the processing power. This Pentium D had 2 Cores!
In addition, it was still prepared for the brand new 64-bit architecture, ready to address more RAM memory (above 4Gb).
The only problem with this processor, as with the previous P4's, was a huge heatsink with a larger cooler, generating noise and high power consumption. Standard LGA 775 sockets and had 2Mb or 4Mb of L2 cache.
The legacy of Multi-Core would be forever rooted in the digital world. Now industries would have to manufacture processors with more Cores, more economical and generating less heat.
Pentium Dual Core
Launched in 2007, this processor was an improvement of the Pentium D and also had 2 cores in a single chip (two CPUs in one) resulting in the most brilliant and advanced multiprocessing technology.
With clock frequency models between 1.3Ghz and 2.6Ghz these chips support 32/64bit architecture, DRAM memory running at 800MHZ and MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3 instruction set. The advantage of this chip was that it could be overclocked with excellent cost/benefit.
Compared to the Pentium D, it was more economical, consumed less power and generated much less heat. It was faster too.
It was superior to the Celerons but inferior to the future Core2 Duo. Standard sockets were LGA775, M and P.
This would be the last time the PENTIUM name would be used commercially.
👉Core 2 Duo- Launched in 2006, this line of processors was superior to the Dual Core.
Models of this processor have a total of 2 to 4 cores performing HTT in 2 physical cores + 2 virtual ones (quad), generating a much higher performance than the Dual Core.
Have 64-bit support, with models from 1.03Ghz to 3.33Ghz, accessing RAM memories of FSB of up to 1600Mhz.
LGA 775 standard socket and others.
The Core 2 Quad is a best version a mark in a First Quad Core processor! Beside Core 2 Quad use LGA 775 neither motherboard can run Core 2 Quad! User must check the Bios Update in order to run Core 2 Quad in a Motherboard that already use Core 2 Duo!
Intel Core i - The newest generation of INTEL processors
Nicknamed I3, I5, I7 this is the newest generation of INTEL processors.
Known by their generations, each of them brings constant improvements in processing power.
We are currently in the 12ª Generation. They all already have an integrated GPU, which can be bypassed by installing a dedicated external 3D video GPU.
Here's a quick summary:
I3- Processor evolved from Core2Duo. It has HTT capacity, with 2 physical cores activating 2 virtual cores becoming a Quad Core. With less L1, L2, L3 cache memory (3Mb or 4Mb) than the others, it is the entry-level processor, considered for economical computers, but it loses processing power for games and daily tasks.
Superior Processor to Celeron. Sockets depend on the generations.
I5- Improvement of the Core I3, with more cache memory, with HTT of 2+2, or 4 real cores, being considered a Quad by the system. Equipped with Turbo Boost technology, it can automatically increase the clock when requested. Cache of (3.4 or 8Mb) with different sockets depending on the generation.
I7- Considered the top of the line, it is the processor with the best performance for the home line, equipped with all technologies. Cache memories that vary from (4, 6, 8 or 12Mb) and with 2, 4, 6 or 8 cores and 16 cores!
👉Celeron Line
Introduced in 1998, it is still manufactured today. With speeds ranging from 266Mhz to the current 3.6Ghz.
This processor was created by Intel to be the brand's low-cost processor, competing with many lines of AMD. Celeron has several architectures, is always based on the most current processor, and has several limited resources.
Therefore the Celeron is an excellent option for computers with daily use, for internet access, office suite use and basic functions. It is not recommended for users who demand a lot of performance.
Currently they can use memories with up to 1333Ghz and some versions have built-in Dual Core capabilities.
New Intel Architecture
Currently, the Intel Core line (I3, I5, I7,I9) has a different architecture from the old Pentium. The NorthBridge chipset is now built into the processor, which has slightly increased the price of this new line, compared to the old Pentium.
On the other hand, motherboards have become a little cheaper, since they have fewer components, due to the lack of the North chip set.
The advantages of this architecture are many, now the processor has the built-in RAM memory controller, in addition to the exclusive bus for PCI-E 16X cards used for offboard video.
This results in less access time, less path for theof the most important devices for the processor.
For us in terms of $$ cost, it hasn't changed much, it's even more expensive.
Another change is that the processors no longer have pins, the sockets were changed to ZIF models that have micro connectors.
Finally, these new processors now have an embedded GPU, which can result in low-cost APUs for basic users.
Be careful to choose the correct model of the Soulth Chipset for your Mobo, it needs to be compatible!
See you👊😎
JMJG- Electronic Engineer/Hardware Instructor
Posts
0 comments:
Post a Comment
We are ESIJMJG Brazil, thank you for comment. Remember, this field is not for request or doubts! In this case, use the Contact Form in "About Us"